; the structure of feudalism can be seen in how these three elements fit together. A
was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would provide military service to the lord. The obligations and relations between lord, vassal and fief form the basis of feudalism.
Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a
. During homage, the lord and vassal entered a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command.
and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty" also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an oath follows homage. Once the commendation was complete, the lord and vassal were now in a feudal relationship with agreed-upon mutual obligations to one another.
The lord's principal obligation was to grant a fief, or its revenues, to the vassal; the fief is the primary reason the vassal chose to enter into the relationship. In addition, the lord sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the vassal and fief. One of those obligations was its maintenance. Since the lord had not given the land away, only loaned it, it was still the lord's responsibility to maintain the land, while the vassal had the right to collect revenues generated from it. Another obligation that the lord had to fulfill was to protect the land and the vassal from harm.
The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to provide "aid", or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer to calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the lord. One of those obligations was to provide the lord with "counsel", so that if the lord faced a major decision, such as whether or not to go to war, he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. The vassal may have been required to yield a certain amount of his farm's output to his lord. The vassal was also sometimes required to grind his own wheat and bake his own bread in the mills and ovens owned and taxed by his lord.
The land-holding relationships of feudalism revolved around the fief. Depending on the power of the granting lord, grants could range in size from a small farm to a much larger area of land. The size of fiefs was described in irregular terms quite different from modern area terms; see
. The lord-vassal relationship was not restricted to members of the laity;
, for example, were also capable of acting as lords.
There were thus different 'levels' of lordship and vassalage. The King was a lord who loaned fiefs to aristocrats, who were his vassals. Meanwhile the aristocrats were in turn lords to their own vassals, the peasants who worked on their land. Ultimately, the Emperor was a lord who loaned fiefs to Kings, who were his vassals. This traditionally formed the basis of a 'universal monarchy' as an imperial alliance and a world order.
Main article: Examples of feudalism
Examples of feudalism In order to better understand what the term
feudalism means, it is helpful to see how it was defined and how it has been used since its seventeenth-century creation.
History of feudalism The word
feudalism was not a medieval term but an invention of 16th-century French and English lawyers to describe certain traditional obligations between members of the warrior aristocracy. Not until 1748 did it become a popular and widely used word, thanks to
Montesquieu's
De L'Esprit des Lois (
The Spirit of the Laws).
Invention of the concept In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism in order to denigrate the antiquated system of the
Ancien Régime, or French monarchy. This was
the Age of Enlightenment when Reason was king and the
Middle Ages was painted as the "
Dark Ages". Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages" including Feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain.
Enlightenment thinkers on feudalism Karl Marx also used the term for political ends. In the 19th century, Marx described feudalism as the economic situation coming before the inevitable rise of
capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was that the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) rested on their control of arable land, leading to a
class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under
serfdom. "The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist." (
The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), chapter 2). Marx thus considered feudalism within a purely economic model.
Marxian theorists have been discussing feudalism for the past 150 years. A renowned example is the extensive debate over feudalism and capitalism between the noted Marxian economist
Paul Sweezy and his British colleague
Maurice Dobb. (See also
mode of production.)
Karl Marx on feudalism Among medievalists, the term
feudalism is one of the most disputed concepts.
Historians on feudalism In the late
19th and early
20th centuries,
John Horace Round and
Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of
English society before the
Norman conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had imported feudalism, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain. The debate continues to this day.
Debating the origins of English feudalism A historian whose concept of feudalism remains highly influential in the 20th century is
François-Louis Ganshof, who belongs to a pre-
Second World War generation. Ganshof defines feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in
Feudalism (1944). His classic definition of feudalism is the most widely known today and also the easiest to understand: simply put, when a lord granted a fief to a vassal, the vassal provided military service in return.
Ganshof and the classic view of feudalism One of Ganshof's contemporaries, a French historian named
Marc Bloch, was arguably the most influential 20th-century medieval historian. Bloch approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one. He developed his ideas in
Feudal Society (1939). Bloch conceived of feudalism as a type of society that was not limited solely to the nobility. Like Ganshof, he recognized that there was a hierarchal relationship between lords and vassals, but Bloch saw as well a similar relationship obtaining between lords and
peasants.
It is this radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers. While the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection. Both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship", and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy. (See
Feudal society.)
Marc Bloch and sociological views of feudalism In 1974, U.S. historian
Elizabeth A. R. Brown rejected the label
feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many—often contradictory—definitions of
feudalism, she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have gone so far as suggesting that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In
Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994),
Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Note that Reynolds does not object to the Marxist use of
feudalism. The term
feudal has also been applied—often inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed. Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term
feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading many historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.
Revolt against the term feudalism History of feudalism Vassalage agreements similar to what would later develop into legalized medieval feudalism originated from the blending of ancient Roman and Germanic traditions. The Romans had a custom of
patronage whereby a stronger patron would provide protection to a weaker client in exchange for gifts, political support, and prestige. In the countryside of the later Empire, the reforms of
Diocletian and his successors attempted to put certain jobs, notably farming, on a hereditary basis. As governmental authority declined and rural lawlessness (such as that of the
Bagaudae) increased, these farmers were increasingly forced to rely upon the protection of the local landowner, and a nexus of interdependency was created: the landowners depended upon the peasants for labor, and the peasants upon the landowners for protection.
Ancient Germans had a custom of equality among warriors, an elected leader who kept the majority of the wealth (land) and who distributed it to members of the group in return for loyalty.
Early forms of feudalism in Europe The Europe of the early
Middle Ages was characterised by economic and population decline and by external threat. Feudalism evolved as a way of maintaining a stable population enaged in farming (towns had been in decline since the end of the Western Empire) and to ensure that levys could be raised to face down external threats.
The rise of feudalism Feudalism had begun as a contract, the exchange of land tenure for military service. Over time, as lords could no longer provide new lands to their vassals, nor enforce their right to reassign lands which had become
de facto hereditary property, feudalism became less tenable as a working relationship. By the
thirteenth century, Europe's economy was involved in a transformation from a mostly
agrarian system to one that was increasingly money-based and mixed. The
Hundred Year's War instigated this gradual transformation as soldier's pay became amounts of gold instead of land. Therefore, it was much easier for a monarch to pay low-class citizens in mineral wealth, and many more were recruited and trained, putting more gold into circulation, thus undermining the land-based feudalism. Land ownership was still an important source of income, and still defined social status, but even wealthy nobles wanted more liquid assets, whether for luxury goods or to provide for wars. This corruption of the form is often referred to as "
bastard feudalism". A noble vassal was expected to deal with most local issues and could not always expect help from a distant king. The nobles were independent and often unwilling to cooperate for a greater cause (military service). By the end of the Middle Ages, the kings were seeking a way to become independent of willful nobles, especially for military support. The kings first hired mercenaries and later created standing national armies.
The
Black Death of the
fourteenth century devasted Europe's population but also destabilised the economic basis of society. For instance, in England, the
villains were much more likely to leave the
manorial territory - seeking better paid work in towns struck by a labour shortage, while the crown responded to the economic crisis by imposing a
poll tax. The resulting social crisis manifested itself in the
peasants' revolt.
Historian J. J. Bagley notes that the
fourteenth century "marked the end of the true feudal age and began paving the way for strong monarchies, nation states, and national wars of the sixteenth century. Much fourteenth century feudalism had become artificial and self-conscious. Already men were finding it a little curious. It was acquiring an antiquarian interest and losing its usefulness. It was ceasing to belong to the real world of practical living."
Decline of feudalism Questioning feudalism The following are historical examples that call into question the traditional use of the term feudalism.
Extant sources reveal that the early
Carolingians had vassals, as did other leading men in the kingdom. This relationship did become more and more standardized over the next two centuries, but there were differences in function and practice in different locations. For example, in the German kingdoms that replaced the kingdom of
Eastern Francia, as well as in some
Slavic kingdoms, the feudal relationship was arguably more closely tied to the rise of
Serfdom, a system that tied peasants to the land.
Moreover, the evolution of the
Holy Roman Empire greatly affected the history of the feudal relationship in central Europe. If one follows long-accepted feudalism models, one might believe that there was a clear hierarchy from Emperor to lesser rulers, be they kings, dukes, princes, or margraves. These models are patently untrue: the
Holy Roman Emperor was elected by a group of seven magnates, three of whom were princes of the church, who in theory could not swear allegiance to any secular lord.
The French kingdoms also seem to provide clear proof that the models are accurate, until we take into consideration the fact that, when
Rollo of Normandy kneeled to pay homage to
Charles the Simple in return for the Duchy of
Normandy, accounts tell us that he knocked the king on his rump as he rose, demonstrating his view that the bond was only as strong as the lord—in this case, not strong at all. Clearly, it was possible for 'vassals' to openly disparage feudal relationships.
The autonomy with which the Normans ruled their duchy supports the view that, despite any legal "feudal" relationship, the Normans did as they pleased. In the case of their own leadership, however, the Normans utilized the feudal relationship to bind their followers to them. It was the influence of the Norman invaders which strengthened and to some extent institutionalized the feudal relationship in England after the
Norman Conquest.
Since we do not use the medieval term vassalage how are we to use the term feudalism? Though it is sometimes used indiscriminately to encompass all reciprocal obligations of support and loyalty in the place of unconditional tenure of position, jurisdiction or land, the term is restricted by most historians to the exchange of specifically voluntary and personal undertakings, to the exclusion of involuntary obligations attached to tenure of "unfree" land: the latter are considered to be rather an aspect of
Manorialism, an element of feudal society but not of feudalism proper.
Use and definition of the term Owing to the range of meanings they have,
feudalism and related terms should be approached and used with considerable care. A circumspect historian like
Fernand Braudel puts
feudalism in quotes when applying it in wider social and economic contexts, such as "the seventeenth century, when much of America was being 'feudalized' as the great
haciendas appeared" (
The Perspective of the World, 1984, p. 403).
Medieval societies never described themselves as
feudal. Popular parlance generally uses the term either for all voluntary or customary bonds in medieval society or for a social order in which civil and military power is exercised under private contractual arrangements. However,
feudal is best used only to denote the voluntary, personal undertakings binding lords and free men to protection in return for support which characterized the administrative and military order.
Cautions on use of feudalism Main article: Examples of feudalism Bibliography Bastard feudalism Overlord Vassal Pikeman Chivalry Knights Majorat Indian feudalism Landed property Medieval demography Medieval warfare Nulle terre sans seigneur
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