ALH 84001 (Allan Hills 84001) is a meteorite found in Allan Hills, Antarctica in December 1984 by a team of US meteorite hunters from the ANSMET project. Like other members of the group of SNCs (shergottite, nakhlite, chassignite), ALH 84001 is thought to be from Mars. On discovery, its mass was 1.93 kg.

History
On August 6, 1996

Possible lifeforms
In September 2005, Vicky Hamilton of the University of Hawaii at Manoa presented an analysis of the origin of ALH 84001 using data from the Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey spacecraft orbiting Mars. According to the analysis, Eos Chasma in the Valles Marineris canyon appears to be the source of the meteorite. The analysis was not conclusive, in part because it was limited to parts of Mars not obscured by dust.

Additional Reading

Martian meteorite
Life on Mars
Panspermia, or more correctly Exogenesis

In 1498 the Portuguese set foot in India, landing near the city of Calicut in the present-day state of Kerala in South India. The pursuit of trade and competition between European powers saw the entry of the British and French, among others, into India. Several fractured Indian kingdoms were eventually taken over by Europeans, who indirectly assumed control by subjugating rulers. In 1757 Mir Qasim, a minister to the Nawab of Bengal secretly connived with the British, asking logistic support to overthrow the Nawab in return for trade grants. The British forces, whose sole duty until then was guarding their British East India Company property, were numerically superior to the Bengali armed forces. At the battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757 fought between the British under the command of Robert Clive and the Nawab, Mir Qasim's forces betrayed the Nawab and helped defeat him. Qasim was installed on the throne as a British subservient ruler. The battle transformed British perspective as they realized their strength and potential to conquer smaller Indian kingdoms, and marked the beginning of the imperial or colonial era.
The British had direct or indirect control over all of present-day India by the early 19 century. In 1857 a local rebellion by an army of sepoys snowballed into the Rebellion of 1857. This resistance, although short-lived, was triggered by widespread resentment against certain discriminatory policies of the British. As a result of this, the British East India Company was abolished and India formally became a crown colony. The slow but momentous reform movement, perhaps influenced in India by contact with European ideas and institutions, developed gradually into the Indian Independence Movement. During the years of the First World War, the hitherto bourgeoise "home-rule" movement was transformed into a popular mass movement by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, a pacifist. Gandhi, later known as Mahatma Gandhi, was aided by revolutionaries such as Shaheed Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekar Azad and Subhash Chandra Bose who were feared by the British in the later stages. The independence movement attained its objective with the Independence of India on August 15, 1947.

Kingdoms
The wars that took place involving the British East India Company or British India during the Colonial era:

Anglo-Mysore Wars
Anglo-Maratha Wars
Anglo-Sikh wars
Gurkha War
Burmese Wars
Opium Wars
Afghan Wars
India in World War II

The French Quarter of Charleston, South Carolina, is a section of Downtown Charleston. It is considered to be bounded by the Cooper River on the east, Broad Street on the south, Meeting Street on the west and Market Street on the north. The area began being called the French Quarter in 1973 when preservation efforts began for warehouse buildings on the Lodge Alley block. The name recognizes the high concentration of French merchants in the area's history.
It was settled as part of the original Grande Modell of Charles Towne in 1680. It is famous for its art galleries; it also has many restaurants and places of commerce as well as Charleston's Waterfront Park.
Charleston's French Quarter is home to many fine historic buildings, among them, the Pink House Tavern, built around 1712, and the Slave Mart, built by Z.B.Oakes in 1859. Also in the French Quarter are the Dock Street Theatre, arguably the first site of theatrical productions in the United States, and the French Huguenot Church, a beautiful Gothic-style church which houses the sole-surviving French Calvinist Congregation in the United States. St. Philip's Episcopal Church, the first congregation in Charleston, whose current building dates to 1835, is also in the French Quarter. St. Philip's cemetery is the final resting place of Edward Rutledge, the youngest signer of the Declaration of Independence, and U.S. Senator and Vice President John C. Calhoun, whose large tomb is empty; his bones were removed during the Civil War to protect them from capture by invading Union forces, and have never been recovered.

Kellye Cash from Memphis, Tennessee, was Miss America 1987.
Since her year as Miss America, Kellye has appeared nationally on The David Letterman Show, Live with Regis and Kathie Lee, the Trinity Broadcasting Network and more.
She has performed with numerous musical artists including Vince Gill, Lee Greenwood, and Billy Joel and has performed in many regional theatrical productions; she was recently chosen for the lead part of country music legend Patsy Cline, in Always...Patsy Cline.
In addition to making approximately 100 appearances each year at charitable, community and political events, Kellye is actively pursuing her Christian music career, having recently released her 3rd CD entitled Real Life.
Kellye currently resides in a small Tennessee town, with her husband Todd and 3 children.
What She's Doing Now
Kellye has performed with numerous musical artists, including Vince Gill, Lee Greenwood and Billy Joel. She is currently playing the role of country music legend Patsy Cline in Always…Patsy Cline and recently released her third CD, Real Life.
Cash is also the great-niece of Johnny Cash. She has a husband named Todd, and three children. The oldest child is her son, Brady. She also has two daughters; the oldest is Cassidy and the youngest is Tatum. Kellye recently played the role of Patsy Cline in a production called "Always Patsy CLine." She currently has produced three CDs: Living by the word, Real Life, Cash and Cline. She is very involved in her local church by directing teaching a college and career class with her husband and also singing and playing for the church.

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Iceland
The Prime Minister of Iceland (Icelandic: Forsætisráðherra Íslands) is Iceland's head of government. The prime minister is appointed by the President and exercises executive power along with the cabinet. Incumbent prime minister is Geir Haarde, leader of the Independence Party. He took office on June 15, 2006.

Constitution
President

• Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson
  Alþing
  Prime Minister
  
  
  
  • Geir H. Haarde (Independ.)
    Cabinet
    Supreme Court
    Ombudsman
    Politicians
    Elections:
    2004 Presidential election
    2007 Parliamentary election
    Political parties
    Administrative divisions
    Foreign relations
    
    
    
    • Iceland and the European Union
      Cod War
      Agreed Minute
      Diplomatic missions Abbreviations
      
      List of Icelandic rulers

The Battle of Ogdensburg was a battle of the War of 1812. The British gained a victory over the Americans and captured the village of Ogdensburg, New York. Although small in scale, it removed the American threat to British supply lines for the remainder of the war.

Battle
After the British withdrew, the Americans did not re-garrison Ogdensburg. The British were able to purchase supplies from unpatriotic Americans there for the remainder of the war. The Ogdensburg area may have been populated by more Tories and Federalists than was previously thought.
The normally cautious Prevost amended MacDonnell's despatch to make it appear that the attack had been carried out on, rather than against, his orders.
The Regimental Chaplain of the Glengarry Light Infantry, Alexander Macdonell, is reputed to have accompanied the attack, wielding a crucifix to encourage lagging soldiers. Less reliably, he is supposed to have been supported by a Presbyterian minister swinging a heavy Bible.

Sighişoara, pronounced "zigi show ARA" (German: Schäßburg; Hungarian: Segesvár; Latin: Castrum Sex) is a city and municipality on the Târnava River in Mureş County, Romania. Located in the historic region Transylvania, Sighişoara has a population of 32,287 (2002).

History
Ethnic groups (2002 census): [1]

Romanians (76.06%)
Hungarians (18.36%)
Roma (3.51%)
Germans (1.92%) Demographics
Sighişoara is a popular tourist destination, due to its well-preserved walled old town. The landmark of the city is the Clock Tower, a 64m high tower built in 1556. It is today a museum of history.
Other interesting sights are:

The House attributed to Vlad Ţepeş, close to the Clock Tower, today a restaurant.
Sighisoara Citadel - a 12th Century Saxon edifice, is the historic center of the city. Still occupied, the citadel is listed as a World Heritage Site.
Clock Tower - Built in 1360 and standing at 60 meters tall atop the citadel hill. Inside is a museum that finishes in a great view from the top.
Weapon Museum - next to Vlad's birthplace. Very small, but it contains an interesting selection of medieval weapons (swords, arrows, etc.).
Covered Staircase - an old stone staircase with a wooden roof along the whole span. This leads up to the Church on the Hill and the cemetery.
Church on the Hill - contains many frescoes and a crypt. Close to the cemetery on the side of the hill, which contains many German tombstones.
Bust of Vlad Tepes - Located around the corner from his birthplace, within sight of the Clock Tower.

Trendle Ring (or Trundle Ring) is an Iron Age earthwork on the Quantock Hills near Bicknoller in Somerset, England. The word trendle means circle, so it is a tautological place name.
The so-called hill fort has several features that make it more likely to be an animal enclosure, rather than a defended settlement:

single rampart with ditch
simple opening for an entrance
situated on the slope of a hill
the hill rises 130 m above the ring
the area is only 0.7 ha

Literature in Thailand was traditionally heavily influenced by Indian culture. Thailand's national epic is a version of the Ramayana called the Ramakien. A number of versions of the epic were lost in the destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767. Three versions currently exist: one of these was prepared under the supervision (and partly written by) King Rama I. His son, Rama II, rewrote some parts for khon drama. The main differences from the original are an extended role for the monkey god Hanuman and the addition of a happy ending.
The most important poet in Thai literature was Sunthorn Phu, who is best known for his romantic adventure story Phra Aphai Mani and nine travel pieces called Nirats.
Kings Rama V and Rama VI were also writers, mainly of non-fiction works as part of their programme to combine Western knowledge with traditional Thai culture.
20th century Thai writers have tended to produce light fiction rather than literature, but the Isan region has produced two notably sociocritical writers in Kamsing Srinok and Pira Sudham.

portrait by Josef Jindřich Šechtl, 1918
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (IPA: [ˈtomaːʃ ˈɡarɪk ˈmasarɪk]), sometimes called Thomas Masaryk in English, (March 7, 1850 - September 14, 1937) was a Czechoslovak statesman, sociologist and philosopher, who as the keenest advocate of Czechoslovak independence during World War I became the first President and founder of Czechoslovakia.

Biography
Masaryk as a philosopher was an outspoken rationalist and humanist. He emphasised practical ethics, reflecting the influence of Anglo-Saxon philosophers, French philosophy, and especially the work of 18th Century German philosopher, Herder, the so-called founder of nationalism. He was critical of German idealistic philosophy and Marxism. Although born Catholic, he eventually became a non-practicing Protestant, influenced in part by the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870 and his wife, Charlotte.

The Atlanta Botanical Garden is a 30 acre (12 hectare) botanical garden located within Piedmont Park in Midtown Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
The Atlanta Botanical Garden contains several different landscapes to display a variety of plants. Near the entrance are formal gardens, such as the Japanese garden, the herb garden, and the rose garden. Two woodland areas, the 5 acre Upper Woodland and the 10-acre Storza Woods feature large trees and shade-loving flowers and undergrowth. The Children's Garden features whimsical sculptures, fountains, and interpretive exhibits on botany, ecology, and nutrition. The 16,000 square foot Dorothy Chapman Fuqua Conservatory contains indoor exhibits of plants from tropical rainforests and deserts. The rainforest room of the Fuqua Conservatory is also populated by tropical birds, turtles, and several exhibits of poison dart frogs. The collaborative amphibian conservation efforts between the Atlanta Botanical Garden and Zoo Atlanta can be seen at:(www.saveafrog.org). Adjoining this building, the Fuqua Orchid Center contains separate rooms simulating the tropics and high elevations in order to house rare orchids from around the world.

Atlanta Botanical Garden Green Expansion Plan

List of botanical gardens in the United States

Note: this article name (or a redirect to it) is a homophone with session.
Most broadly, cession (to cede) is the assignment of property to another entity. In international law it commonly refers to land transferred by treaty. Cession is "a surrender; a yielding; a giving up."

Specific areas of law
This is a yielding up, or release. France ceded Louisiana to the United States by the treaty of Paris, of April 30, 1803. Spain made a cession of East and West Florida by the treaty of February 22, 1819. Cessions have been severally made of a part of their territory by New York, Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia.

Etymology
See also Feudal society and Examples of feudalism
Three primary elements characterized feudalism: lords, vassals and fiefs; the structure of feudalism can be seen in how these three elements fit together. A lord was a noble who owned land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would provide military service to the lord. The obligations and relations between lord, vassal and fief form the basis of feudalism.

Characteristics
Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony composed of the two-part act of homage and oath of fealty. During homage, the lord and vassal entered a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command. Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty" also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an oath follows homage. Once the commendation was complete, the lord and vassal were now in a feudal relationship with agreed-upon mutual obligations to one another.
The lord's principal obligation was to grant a fief, or its revenues, to the vassal; the fief is the primary reason the vassal chose to enter into the relationship. In addition, the lord sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the vassal and fief. One of those obligations was its maintenance. Since the lord had not given the land away, only loaned it, it was still the lord's responsibility to maintain the land, while the vassal had the right to collect revenues generated from it. Another obligation that the lord had to fulfill was to protect the land and the vassal from harm.
The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to provide "aid", or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer to calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the lord. One of those obligations was to provide the lord with "counsel", so that if the lord faced a major decision, such as whether or not to go to war, he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. The vassal may have been required to yield a certain amount of his farm's output to his lord. The vassal was also sometimes required to grind his own wheat and bake his own bread in the mills and ovens owned and taxed by his lord.
The land-holding relationships of feudalism revolved around the fief. Depending on the power of the granting lord, grants could range in size from a small farm to a much larger area of land. The size of fiefs was described in irregular terms quite different from modern area terms; see medieval land terms. The lord-vassal relationship was not restricted to members of the laity; bishops and abbots, for example, were also capable of acting as lords.
There were thus different 'levels' of lordship and vassalage. The King was a lord who loaned fiefs to aristocrats, who were his vassals. Meanwhile the aristocrats were in turn lords to their own vassals, the peasants who worked on their land. Ultimately, the Emperor was a lord who loaned fiefs to Kings, who were his vassals. This traditionally formed the basis of a 'universal monarchy' as an imperial alliance and a world order.

Lords, vassals, and fiefs

Main article: Examples of feudalism Examples of feudalism
In order to better understand what the term feudalism means, it is helpful to see how it was defined and how it has been used since its seventeenth-century creation.

History of feudalism
The word feudalism was not a medieval term but an invention of 16th-century French and English lawyers to describe certain traditional obligations between members of the warrior aristocracy. Not until 1748 did it become a popular and widely used word, thanks to Montesquieu's De L'Esprit des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws).

Invention of the concept
In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism in order to denigrate the antiquated system of the Ancien Régime, or French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment when Reason was king and the Middle Ages was painted as the "Dark Ages". Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages" including Feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain.

Enlightenment thinkers on feudalism
Karl Marx also used the term for political ends. In the 19th century, Marx described feudalism as the economic situation coming before the inevitable rise of capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was that the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) rested on their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom. "The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist." (The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), chapter 2). Marx thus considered feudalism within a purely economic model.
Marxian theorists have been discussing feudalism for the past 150 years. A renowned example is the extensive debate over feudalism and capitalism between the noted Marxian economist Paul Sweezy and his British colleague Maurice Dobb. (See also mode of production.)

Karl Marx on feudalism
Among medievalists, the term feudalism is one of the most disputed concepts.

Historians on feudalism
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, John Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of English society before the Norman conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had imported feudalism, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain. The debate continues to this day.

Debating the origins of English feudalism
A historian whose concept of feudalism remains highly influential in the 20th century is François-Louis Ganshof, who belongs to a pre-Second World War generation. Ganshof defines feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in Feudalism (1944). His classic definition of feudalism is the most widely known today and also the easiest to understand: simply put, when a lord granted a fief to a vassal, the vassal provided military service in return.

Ganshof and the classic view of feudalism
One of Ganshof's contemporaries, a French historian named Marc Bloch, was arguably the most influential 20th-century medieval historian. Bloch approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one. He developed his ideas in Feudal Society (1939). Bloch conceived of feudalism as a type of society that was not limited solely to the nobility. Like Ganshof, he recognized that there was a hierarchal relationship between lords and vassals, but Bloch saw as well a similar relationship obtaining between lords and peasants.
It is this radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers. While the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection. Both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship", and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy. (See Feudal society.)

Marc Bloch and sociological views of feudalism
In 1974, U.S. historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown rejected the label feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many—often contradictory—definitions of feudalism, she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have gone so far as suggesting that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Note that Reynolds does not object to the Marxist use of feudalism.
The term feudal has also been applied—often inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed. Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading many historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society.

Revolt against the term feudalism

History of feudalism
Vassalage agreements similar to what would later develop into legalized medieval feudalism originated from the blending of ancient Roman and Germanic traditions. The Romans had a custom of patronage whereby a stronger patron would provide protection to a weaker client in exchange for gifts, political support, and prestige. In the countryside of the later Empire, the reforms of Diocletian and his successors attempted to put certain jobs, notably farming, on a hereditary basis. As governmental authority declined and rural lawlessness (such as that of the Bagaudae) increased, these farmers were increasingly forced to rely upon the protection of the local landowner, and a nexus of interdependency was created: the landowners depended upon the peasants for labor, and the peasants upon the landowners for protection.
Ancient Germans had a custom of equality among warriors, an elected leader who kept the majority of the wealth (land) and who distributed it to members of the group in return for loyalty.

Early forms of feudalism in Europe
The Europe of the early Middle Ages was characterised by economic and population decline and by external threat. Feudalism evolved as a way of maintaining a stable population enaged in farming (towns had been in decline since the end of the Western Empire) and to ensure that levys could be raised to face down external threats.

The rise of feudalism
Feudalism had begun as a contract, the exchange of land tenure for military service. Over time, as lords could no longer provide new lands to their vassals, nor enforce their right to reassign lands which had become de facto hereditary property, feudalism became less tenable as a working relationship. By the thirteenth century, Europe's economy was involved in a transformation from a mostly agrarian system to one that was increasingly money-based and mixed. The Hundred Year's War instigated this gradual transformation as soldier's pay became amounts of gold instead of land. Therefore, it was much easier for a monarch to pay low-class citizens in mineral wealth, and many more were recruited and trained, putting more gold into circulation, thus undermining the land-based feudalism. Land ownership was still an important source of income, and still defined social status, but even wealthy nobles wanted more liquid assets, whether for luxury goods or to provide for wars. This corruption of the form is often referred to as "bastard feudalism". A noble vassal was expected to deal with most local issues and could not always expect help from a distant king. The nobles were independent and often unwilling to cooperate for a greater cause (military service). By the end of the Middle Ages, the kings were seeking a way to become independent of willful nobles, especially for military support. The kings first hired mercenaries and later created standing national armies.
The Black Death of the fourteenth century devasted Europe's population but also destabilised the economic basis of society. For instance, in England, the villains were much more likely to leave the manorial territory - seeking better paid work in towns struck by a labour shortage, while the crown responded to the economic crisis by imposing a poll tax. The resulting social crisis manifested itself in the peasants' revolt.
Historian J. J. Bagley notes that the fourteenth century
"marked the end of the true feudal age and began paving the way for strong monarchies, nation states, and national wars of the sixteenth century. Much fourteenth century feudalism had become artificial and self-conscious. Already men were finding it a little curious. It was acquiring an antiquarian interest and losing its usefulness. It was ceasing to belong to the real world of practical living."

Decline of feudalism

Questioning feudalism
The following are historical examples that call into question the traditional use of the term feudalism.
Extant sources reveal that the early Carolingians had vassals, as did other leading men in the kingdom. This relationship did become more and more standardized over the next two centuries, but there were differences in function and practice in different locations. For example, in the German kingdoms that replaced the kingdom of Eastern Francia, as well as in some Slavic kingdoms, the feudal relationship was arguably more closely tied to the rise of Serfdom, a system that tied peasants to the land.
Moreover, the evolution of the Holy Roman Empire greatly affected the history of the feudal relationship in central Europe. If one follows long-accepted feudalism models, one might believe that there was a clear hierarchy from Emperor to lesser rulers, be they kings, dukes, princes, or margraves. These models are patently untrue: the Holy Roman Emperor was elected by a group of seven magnates, three of whom were princes of the church, who in theory could not swear allegiance to any secular lord.
The French kingdoms also seem to provide clear proof that the models are accurate, until we take into consideration the fact that, when Rollo of Normandy kneeled to pay homage to Charles the Simple in return for the Duchy of Normandy, accounts tell us that he knocked the king on his rump as he rose, demonstrating his view that the bond was only as strong as the lord—in this case, not strong at all. Clearly, it was possible for 'vassals' to openly disparage feudal relationships.
The autonomy with which the Normans ruled their duchy supports the view that, despite any legal "feudal" relationship, the Normans did as they pleased. In the case of their own leadership, however, the Normans utilized the feudal relationship to bind their followers to them. It was the influence of the Norman invaders which strengthened and to some extent institutionalized the feudal relationship in England after the Norman Conquest.
Since we do not use the medieval term vassalage how are we to use the term feudalism? Though it is sometimes used indiscriminately to encompass all reciprocal obligations of support and loyalty in the place of unconditional tenure of position, jurisdiction or land, the term is restricted by most historians to the exchange of specifically voluntary and personal undertakings, to the exclusion of involuntary obligations attached to tenure of "unfree" land: the latter are considered to be rather an aspect of Manorialism, an element of feudal society but not of feudalism proper.

Use and definition of the term
Owing to the range of meanings they have, feudalism and related terms should be approached and used with considerable care. A circumspect historian like Fernand Braudel puts feudalism in quotes when applying it in wider social and economic contexts, such as "the seventeenth century, when much of America was being 'feudalized' as the great haciendas appeared" (The Perspective of the World, 1984, p. 403).
Medieval societies never described themselves as feudal. Popular parlance generally uses the term either for all voluntary or customary bonds in medieval society or for a social order in which civil and military power is exercised under private contractual arrangements. However, feudal is best used only to denote the voluntary, personal undertakings binding lords and free men to protection in return for support which characterized the administrative and military order.

Cautions on use of feudalism

Main article: Examples of feudalism Bibliography

Bastard feudalism
Overlord
Vassal
Pikeman
Chivalry
Knights
Majorat
Indian feudalism
Landed property
Medieval demography
Medieval warfare
Nulle terre sans seigneur

"Electronegativity" is antipodally distinguished from "Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons.
Electronegativity, symbol χ, is a chemical property that describes the power of an atom (or, more rarely, a functional group) to attract electrons towards itself. but it is usually considered to be a transferable property, that is to say that similar values will be valid in a variety of situations.

Electronegativities of the elements

Methods of calculation
Pauling first proposed and it is these "revised Pauling" values of the electronegativity which are most usually used.

Pauling electronegativity
Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the first ionization energy and the electron affinity should be a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

The Mulliken electronegativity can only be calculated for an element for which the electron affinity is known, fifty-seven elements as of 2006.

Allred-Rochow electronegativity
Sanderson has also noted the relationship between electronegativity and atomic size, and has proposed a method of calculation based on the reciprocal of the atomic volume.

Sanderson electronegativity
Perhaps the simplest definition of electronegativity is that of Allen, who has proposed that it is related to the average energy of the valence electrons in a free atom, However, it is not clear what should be considered to be valence electrons for the d- and f-block elements, which leads to an ambiguity for their electronegativities calculated by the Allen method.

Allen electronegativity
The wide variety of methods of calculation of electronegativities, which all give results which correlate well with one another, is one indication of the number of chemical properties which might be affected by electronegativity. The most obvious application of electronegativities is in the discussion of bond polarity, for which the concept was introduced by Pauling. In general, the greater the difference in electronegativity between two atoms, the more polar the bond that will be formed between them, with the atom having the higher electronegativity being at the negative end of the dipole. Pauling proposed an equation to relate "ionic character" of a bond to the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms,

Correlation of electronegativity with other properties

Trends in electronegativity
In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is undoubtedly the most electronegative of the elements while caesium is the least electronegative, at least of those elements for which substantial data are available.
There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d-block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity (see Allred-Rochow electronegativity, Sanderson electronegativity above). The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection (and data availability)—methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements.

Periodic trends
In inorganic chemistry it is common to consider a single value of the electronegativity to be valid for most "normal" situations. While this approach has the advantage of simplicity, it is clear that the electronegativity of an element is not an invariable atomic property and, in particular, increases with the oxidation state of the element.
Allred used the Pauling method to calculate separate electronegativities for different oxidation states of the handful of elements (including tin and lead) for which sufficient data was available. However, for most elements, there are not enough different covalent compounds for which bond dissociation energies are known to make this approach feasible. This is particularly true of the transition elements, where quoted electronegativity values are usually, of necessity, averages over several different oxidation states and where trends in electronegativity are harder to see as a result.
The chemical effects of this increase in electronegativity can be seen both in the structures of oxides and halides and in the acidity of oxides and oxoacids. Hence CrO₃ and Mn₂O₇ are acidic oxides with low melting points, while Cr₂O₃ is amphoteric and Mn₂O₃ is a completely basic oxide.
The effect can also be clearly seen in the dissociation constants of the oxoacids of chlorine. The effect is much larger than could be explained by the negative charge being shared among a larger number of oxygen atoms, which would lead to a difference in pK_a of log₁₀(¼) = −0.6 between hypochlorous acid and perchloric acid. As the oxidation state of the central chlorine atom increases, more electron density is drawn from the oxygen atoms onto the chlorine, reducing the partial negative charge on the oxygen atoms and increasing the acidity.

Variation of electronegativity with oxidation number

Main article: Electronic effect of substituents See also

Bagpipe terms are terms commonly used when discussing the bagpipe, both generally and in technical detail.

History
Historically, the highland bagpipe was a solo instrument and was tuned to a Gaelic vocal scale that was pentatonical and mixolydian in character. The early bagpipe glossary was limited to complex cryptic notational forms, terms and expressions, usually in the Gaelic (Scottish and Irish) language. Also Canntaireachd served pipers exceedingly well. Canntaireachd is a vocal notational language. It is a methodology of singing piobaireachd tunes to (i) memorize the tunes as well as (ii) capture subtleties, expressiveness, feelings of emotion intended by the masters. The Canntaireachd vocabulary is extremely precise.
With the advent of the Military Pipe Bands a more disciplined approach to musical notation was required. Furthermore, (i) the popularity of The Chieftains, among others, (ii) the increased use of bagpipes in concert settings, (iii) the invention of the programmable bagpipe synthesizer by George H. Boyd in 1991, and the ability to tune bagpipes to even equal temperament if required, and (iv) the changing character of modern chanters used by competitive pipers - brighter, higher pitched, truer thirds, and a seemingly progression to a diatonic scale, all demand that pipe musical notation adhere more closely to modern musical terminology.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Top of page — See also — External links
Frequently asked questions

Alphabetical listing

A
Top of Page-------External Links

Aftertones: caused by snares being too loose and rattling.
African Blackwood: a popular wood used in making drones for the bagpipes. Ebony is also used and cocus wood from South America and Jamaica is a less expensive alternative. Older pipes in museums are made from local woods such as laburnum, boxwood, holly and close grained fruit woods.
Arm Strap: used to tie or secure the bellows to the pipers arm.
Argyllshire Gathering: an annual piping competition held at Oban, Scotland every August which attracts international Masters of the Highland Bagpipe. Competitions are held for (i) the Open Piobaireachd - the Clasp; (ii) The Highland Society of London's Gold Medal (Piobaireachd); (iii) Silver Medal - Piobaireachd; (iv) former Winners MSR: March, Strathspey and Reel Competition for the Silver Star; (iv) individual event competitions for Grade A & B MSR; Grade B Strathspey & Reel; and Hornpipe & Jig. Previous winners are barred in the Gold Medal competition. A similar event is held at Inverness, Scotland, (the Northern Meeting) which is aligned with the Argyllshire Gathering and is held in September each year.
Arundo Donax: a cane used for reed making found in many parts of Europe. Also used for oboe and clarinet reeds.
Attack: when a pipe band steps off to play, the drones are sounded on the fifth beat and the chanters sound the Attack note E on the seventh beat. The movement must be carried out with extreme precision and full tone and as a single instrument. See the Pipe Major command: "By the Right Quick March." B
Top of Page-------External Links

Back D: is an octave higher than the tonic Bottom D in uilleann piping. It is called Back D because it is the only note for which the hole on the back of the chanter is uncovered.
Back Hole: the thumb hole on the highland pipe chanter and the uilleann chanter.
Backstitching: a type of triplet in uilleann piping.
Baldric: decorative sash about 4 inches wide, worn by the Drum Major, hanging from the left shoulder, and draping down across the chest and back of the Drum Major, and being joined at the right hip with decorative tassels.
Bag Seasoning: treacle is a substance used to season a bagpipe bag to keep the bag airtight, and to allow moisture to dissipate. Common ingredients might include beeswax and honey.
Bag: pipe bags historically were made of sheepskin or sealskin, and tanned to a soft leather and stitched around the seams. A leather bag, properly seasoned with a treacle will be airtight but will allow moisture to dissipate. Elkskin, cowhide skin tanned to a tougher leather are also popular. Kangaroo skin is also used. Other synthetic materials are also used.
Bag Cover: the leather bag is covered with a colorful cover usually with frills around the drone stocks, chanter stock, the blow stick stock. It is not uncommon for Irish pipe bands to have a green velvet cover with gold tassels; and Scottish band to cover their pipes with a matching tartan.
Bag Neck: the neck can be made in the shape of a "gooseneck" which is helpful for pipers with long arms.
Bannockburn Pipes: a famous relic of bagpipes
Bark: achieved by playing a note, and simultaneously raising the uillleann chanter off the knee, and placing it back on the knee with a quick snap. The notation for a Bark is ↑B.
Bead Holes: are situated on the drones of Northumbrian pipes allowing the piper to change the pitch of the drones.
Bell Note:
Bellow Board:
Bellow Pipe:
Bellows: are used by the uilleann pipes and border pipes as the source of air to drive the reed vibration. Not surprisingly, bellows look like the familiar fireplace bellows. One side of the bellows (called the cheek) is attached to the waist by a belt, the other to the upper arm by a strap. A short hose or pipe connects the air outlet of the bellows to the bag.
Binary Form: used to describe a melody which based on two phrases, each identified as either A or B. The composition may be described, as an example, as ABAB ABBA. Common in bagpipe music.
Bind: another name for Tie.
Birl: onomatopoeic name for an embellishment made on low A with a double tap or finger movement across the low G hole
Blade: the vibrating element of a bagpipe reed. Chanter reeds have two blades whereas drone reeds have a single blade or tongue.
Blowpipe: the pipe through which the bagpipe bag is inflated.
Blowpipe Stock: a short wooden cylinder which serves as the housing to hold the drone or the chanter. Stocks are usually tied into the bag with heavy wax stout thread or cord, in such a way that the seal around them is airtight. Stocks may be turned or carved and may accept one or more pipes which is usually the case with border pipe drones and uilleann drones and regulators.
Blow Stick:
Bodhran: a one sided Gaelic (Irish) drum about 18" in diameter, pronounced bow-ran. The drum stick is called a tipper. The Bodhran is now very popular in orchestral groups featuring the uilleann pipes, pennywhistles, accordions and other Irish instruments.
Bole: aka Knob. A semi-spherical shaped section at the top of the chanter supporting the lapped reed seat nipple. The part of the chanter to be gripped when removing the chanter from the stock.
Bomborde:
Bonnet:
Bottom D: the lowest note available on an uilleann D chanter. and is called Bottom D to avoid confusion with the two higher D's available on the chromatic scale. It is obtained by lifting the chanter off the popping strap.
Brien Boru Pipes: frequently misspelled as Brian Boru. Mouth blown Irish pipes. The original chanter had three extra notes, a High B, a Low E and a Low F#. This enabled Irish pipers to play many Irish tunes which required an expanded note range. The new scale was Low E, Low F#, G#, Low A, B, C#, D, E, F#, High G#, High A, High B. The original chanter required different fingering than the highland chanter. Additionally, the Brien Boru pipes had three parallel drones of differing sizes, tuned to Low A, E, and High A that were set in a single stock like the uilleann pipes. A second chanter was introduced with mechanical keys but preserving the highland chanter fingering to avoid the requirement to relearn new fingering. The Brien Boru chanter did not catch on with Scottish pipers and was short lived in Ireland.
Burrs: the squawking of a reed; usually occurs when playing Low G when testing the volume of a chanter. Indicates a problem with the chanter or the reed or the blower.
By the Right Quick March: The Pipe Major directs the band to dress right, and then sharply step off with words (the pace of which) expresses the tempo: "Right - Quick - March." The drum corps executes two three pace rolls to establish the tempo signaled by the Pipe Major. On the fifth beat of the introduction, the drones sound in unison. On the seventh beat, the E should be precisely intoned as a single instrument. Depending on the tune, the melody begins on the eight or ninth beat and all members of the band are in lock step. When addressing a Mass Band, the Pipe Major usually directs the band with "By the Center Quick March." C
Top of Page-------External Links

C: as a time signature means common time. See Common and Perfect time.
Cadence: a phrase may contain several motifs. Phrases combine to form musical sentences. Each sentence forms a part which consists of four phrases which can be one or two bars long. The sentences or parts form a paragraph which is a complete work or melody. The end of each phrase is a Cadence which usually takes the following form: Interrupted, Imperfect, Interrupted, and Perfect cadences.
Cadence, common: there are three common cadences that appear in highland bagpipe music: (i) perfect: the notes progress from dominant to tonic, also known as Full Close; (ii) Imperfect: progresses from any not to the dominant; also known as Half Stop; Interrupted: progresses from the dominant to the submediant. Other cadences include Plagal or Amen which progresses from subdominant to tonic and rarely seen in bagpipe music. Cadences can be seen as strong (masculine) or weak (feminine) depending on whether they end on a strong or weak beat.
Cane: certain grasses have stiff tubular bamboo-like stems, of which reeds, or in some cases entire pipes are made. The most common cane used in bagpipes is Arundo Donax.
Canntaireachd: is a notational language. It is a methodology of singing piobaireachd tunes to (i) memorize the tunes as well as (ii) capture subtleties, expressiveness, feelings of emotion intended by the masters. The vocabulary is extremely precise.
Ceili: aka Céili; pronounced kay-lee is a party or self-entertaining social. A céilidh is the traditional Gaelic social dance in Ireland and Scotland. Other spellings encountered are ceilidh, céilí (Irish reformed spelling) and cèilidh (Scottish Gaelic reformed spelling). Participants in a Ceili are expected to entertain each other. The uilleann pipe is now an essential part of the Ceili celebration.
Ceòl Beag: aka Ceol Beag; popular pipe band music.
Ceòl Mór: aka Ceol Mor. Literally "great music" or Piobaireachd, the classical music of the soloist.
Ceòl Mhór: aka Ceol Mhor. Irish spelling of Ceol Mor. Also refers to the Great Irish Warpipe.
Chanter: bagpipe chanters have a conical bore. The uilleann chanter covers a range of two octaves. It has keys and can be stopped by closing the bottom of the chanter. Consequently it can play a chromatic scale, including staccato. The highland chanter is a continuous playing chanter and cannot be stopped. It contains no keys. It has a range of one octave and a second (1 1/8 octaves).
Chanter Stock: usually made of brass for the uilleann pipe.
Chanter Stop Key:
Chanter, Practice:
Chamber Bagpipes:
Chord: a group of notes separated by at least one interval each, and played at the same time. The chord may be concordant (in harmony) or discordant (not pleasing)
Chordal Accompaniment: Uilleann regulators can accompany the melody in two ways - through percussion sounds or block chords similar to the effect of a key board.
Chromatic Scale: contains the 12 pitches of the Western equal temperament scale The uilleann pipe can play the entire chromatic scale over two octaves from D to D because (i) of the keys; (ii) alternate fingering; and (iii) the ability to force the chanter to a higher octave using increased pressure. The highland pipe cannot play the chromatic scale. The scale of the highland pipe is closer to a mixolydian mode. Purist will argue that the uilleann chanter is tuned to just intonation because of the need to maximally harmonize (across all notes on the chanter) with the drones and regulators and therefore is note using the chromatic scale. As a practical matter if two notes are a semitone apart they will usually have the same letter such as A and A#, except for the natural semitones, E -F and B - C. Technically speaking, both the highland and uilleann chanters can be tuned to equal temperament.
Cimpoi: aka Çimpoi: a Romanian chanter with cylindrical bore and single beating reed like a drone reed. Also has a lower joint usually carved from horn that extends at approximately 45 degrees from the bottom of the chanter.
Circular Breathing: a technique used by woodwind players to play a continuous sound without the aid of bellows or a bag or an air reservoir. The musician contracts the cheeks (full of air) while quickly breathing through the nose into the lungs.
Clef: only the G clef is used in pipe music which denotes that the second Leger line is the note G. The word is a French word for Key. There are three commonly used clef symbols: the G clef, the F clef, and the C clef.
Closed Bore: a chanter will a closed end at the bottom of the chanter. When all the finger holes are closed, the chanter cannot sound. A way to introduce silence (of the chanter) between notes.
Closed Fingering: there are several ways to design a chanter. When a note is played, the chanter can be designed so that many holes are open, or many holes are closed. A closed fingering chanter is one that is designed so that most holes are closed when playing a note.
Collar: a strip of copper about 1/8" to 3/16" wide and 2" long with slanted edges. Used to secure the two blades of a reed.
College of Piping: was started in 1957 by Seumas MacNeill and Thomas Pearston from simple beginnings. Located in Glasgow, Scotland. Publishes the Piping Times. Its students rank among the best pipers in the world. Contains a museum with modern electronically activated exhibits.
Colour: the quality of a sound. Same as #Timbre and #Quality. Colour helps distinguish two sounds of the same pitch. Timbre is a function of the distribution of harmonics or overtones of the instrument.
Combing: decorative marks or inscriptions or turnings consisting of more or less tightly spaced narrow circular grooves found particularly on drones and particularly on Great Highland pipes.
Comma: the interval 81/80 or 21.4 cents. It is part of the limma on the intervals between C and D as well as F and High G on the Great Highland Bagpipe chanter. A comma and a diatonic semitone equals a limma
Common Time: four crotchets per bar. Written as 4/4, or with the letter C positioned to the immediate right of the treble clef, and between the 2nd and 4th staff line. Triple time was believed to be perfect time because it was reminiscent of the Trinity and represented by a circle. Quadruple time was held to be imperfect and was shown as an incomplete circle and became known as common time and hence the letter C.
Competition March, Strathspey, Reel: is called a set and is played as a competition exercise; suggested tempos for 2/4 marches - quarter note at 68-74 beats per minute; Strathspey - quarter note at 132 beats per minute dancing temp; reel = half note at 84-92 beats per minute.
Compound Duple: two beats per bar, composed of compound notes. Examples: 6/4, 6/8, 6/16.
Compound Note: as an example, a dotted note is considered compound because it cannot be replaced by two notes of equal but lesser value. However one might argue that a dotted quarter note can be replaced by two dotted eight notes.
Compound Triple: three beats per bar, composed of compound notes. Examples: 9/4, 9/8, 9/16.
Compound Quadruple: three beats per bar, composed of compound notes. Examples: 12/4, 12/8, 12/16.
Conical Bore: the chanters of the highland bagpipe and uilleann bagpipe are conically bored instruments. Each have finger holes that when covered change the length of the column of air in the chanter to produce differing pitches.
Cords: decorative cords with tassels are used to link or tie the three drones of the highland pipe together. Some piper majors recommend that the spacing between any two drones not exceed 7".
Counterpoint: occurs when different melodies are combined to form a pleasing melodic and harmonic piece. Limited use in bagpiping with the exception of folk and Christmas tunes. A simplest example is Kumbaya played with seconds and thirds.
Cow horn Bell: a decorative device at the end of a chanter or drone, made from a cow horn, often decorated, or made from wood and/or metal in the shape of a cow horn . Most often found on Eastern European and Mediterranean pipes. Cow horn bells provide a visual link to one of the bagpipe's very early ancestors, the hornpipe.
Cran: cranning or popping of the uilleann pipe is similar to staccato playing, except that the notes need not be sharply accented or emphasized. The chanter is closed on the knee momentarily eliminating the need for gracenotes for dividing purposes.
Crossover: the base drummer holds the sticks over his head in a cross over fashion, striking the left side of the drum with the right hand and the right side of the drum with the left hand.
Crossover Instrument: the pennywhistle is considered a crossover instrument between the highland pipes and the uilleann pipes. Highland pipers who want to learn the uilleann pipes frequently use the penny whistle as the crossover instrument or practice chanter.
Crotchet: is a one-quarter note: (1/4th)
Crow: a good reed gives off a crow (or scratchy sound) when blown without the chanter. Some reed makers claim they can hear all the notes of the chanter in the crow. A new reed blown in the chanter at Hi A (highland chanter) will give off a slight scratchy sound which is heard as an indicator of a good reed when it settles in.
Crunluath: a weighty embellishment played between theme notes in piobaireachd. See illustration (xiv) in the Embellishment table at the top of the page. May come from Gaelic words for crown (crun) and quick (luath).
Crunluath a Mach: a weighty embellishment played between theme notes in piobaireachd. See illustration (xv) in the Embellishment table at the top of the page. May come from Gaelic words for crown (crun) and quick (luath)
Cuisle: means flute but Gaelic poets may have extended meaning to bagpipe. (S.Donnelly)
Cut: has two meanings: (i) an old term for a single gracenote; (ii) to cut the value of a note by one-half, usually accompanied by doting a companion note so as to preserve the overall value of the combined notes. Another example: the triplet usually found in jigs might be written as three eight notes connected by a brace. The triplet can be played evenly, or it can be cut in 6 different ways while doting a companion note.
Cut Common Time: also called reel time or Alla breve time. The tempo symbol after the clefis a C with a vertical line through it, representing 2/2 time. Two half notes per measure, each half note a beat. The overall tempo is 120 beats per minute.
Cylindrical Bore: the drones of highland and uilleann pipes, including regulators are cylindrical. Changing the length of a drone, by by use of the sliders, changes the length of the column of air thereby producing a different pitch. A cylindrical bore will tend to be softer, mellower than a conical bore (of the same size). Conical bores tend to be more nasal and shrill than cylindrical bores, all other things being equal. D
Top of Page-------External Links

Dampers: strips of appropriate material inside the drum head and offset from the center. Dampers reduce rate of skin vibration and affects tonal quality. Over-damped drums will produce a dull thud sound.
Dancing Tunes: See Scottish highland dance
Day/Evening Wear: formal attire with kilts and tuxedo jacket. The distinguishing feature is a leather sporran.
Deachínn Ghleusda|Deachinn Ghleusda]]: meas a test of the tuning: a bagpipe or harp prelude to warm up and appropriately set the mood for the concert piece.
Decibel: a measure of acoustical power. The original measure was Bel, symbol B. The Bel was too large to work with so they introduced the "decibel" which is one-tenth of a Bel. The decibel is an exponential number. The bagpipe decibel output is 90 or greater. 90 decibels is 1,000,000,000 times greater than one decibel. Bagpipes are dangerous to the players ear under prolonged playing conditions. Ear plugs should be worn at all times. The Highland Regiments have placed restrictions on the amount of time pipers are allowed to play or practice each day. See FAQs below on requirement to wear ear plugs.
Degrees: of a scale are the divisions of pitch represented by the first seven letters of the alphabet: A B C D E F G. These divisions are also denoted by the Roman Numerals I II III IV V VI VII VIII.
Demi-Semi Quaver Note: 1/32nd
Depth: or weight is added to pipe music by the use of embellishments which go through low G. Examples are the Grip, the Birl, and the Throw on D. The drumming counterpart for depth would be the use of the Four Stroke Ruff.
Diatonic scale: one of the key features of a diatonic scale is that is contains five tones and two semi-tones, where the semi-tones are maximally separated. The pattern is T T S T T T S. The diatonic scale is composed of two tetrachords separated by a full tone. As a practical matter, in C Major, two notes separated by a semitone will have different letter names (e.g. E to F). Derives from the Greek word diatonic meaning through tones, or the Greek word heptatonia prima.
Dirk: a dagger probably less than 12 inches. Usually a highly decorative item with silver scroll work and semi precious stones. Worn on the right hip with military pipe band uniforms. Originally believed to serve as a weapon or utensil.
Dithis: Piobaireachd Variation. Pronounced: "jee-esh" but other pronunciations exist. Means two or a pair. Represents a variation of the Urlar or Ground or theme of the Piobaireachd. Sometimes used interchangeably with the variation referred to as Siubhal. The authority Seumas MacNeill (fact) states the terms mean different but somewhat similar variations and should not be used interchangeably. The Dithis is composed of several theme notes from the Urlar. The theme notes are played with one or two alternating lower notes such as A and G. The theme notes are accented and the following single notes are cut or of shorter duration. Emphasis and mood of are critical importance among the masters. When the theme note and a given alternating note are repeated in pairs, the dithis is called a doubling, otherwise it is referred to as a dithis singling
Dodecaphonic: means the Chromatic scale.
Dressing: used to season the bag; can include milk, honey, beeswax, whiskey. The novice should be careful. See #treacle
Dotted Note: increases the value or duration of the note by 50%. Two dots following a note increases the value by 75%.
Dominant: the dominant note is called the Fifth (V) and its ratio to the Tonic or Keynote is 3/2. It produces a pleasing harmonious sound to the ear when sounded with the tonic.
Double Bar line: the two dots after the bar line signify the beginning of a melody that needs to be repeated. The dots before the double bar line indicate the end of the melody that must be repeated.
Double Base: some uilleann pipes have a fourth regulator. The regulator will resonate at D3 (146.83 Hertz), the same as the Base Drone, but with a deeper tone. A clarinet and oboe playing D4 will produce the same note (Hertz produce a different tone which distinguishes instruments from each other. Tone is effected by the harmonics or overtones generated by the instrument and its reeds.
Double Chanter: a bagpipe with two chanters with two bores and two sets of finger holes. On some, both bores have the same finger hole spacing and sound in unison. On others, one bore may have only a single finger hole and is used as a sort of alternating-tone drone. Also some pipes have two completely separate chanters (for example: Italian Zampognas).
Double Gold Medal: winning two premier competitions (Oban and Inverness) in the same year
Double Jig: may be the oldest type of dance tune surviving, more popular than the hornpipe, almost as popular as the reel. Has a time signature of 6/8. the rhythm is 1 2 3 - 1 2 3. frequently, two groups of eight notes.
Double Tone: an acoustical phenomenon that is not well understood. When starting the bagpipes, as the pressure is increased, the drones strike in at a higher pitch, perhaps a semitone or tone higher than normal. As the pressure continues to increase, the drones fully strike in at a normal and smoother pitch. This is deemed to be indicative of a higher quality reed.
Double Tonic: About 80% of Piobaireachd is written in the Pentatonic scale. So it is not uncommon to hear two tonics or keys in a single tune. This occurs because the tune has two themes, with similar structure, written a semitone apart. The phenomenon is unmistakable when it is heard; the aural recognition that the key has change in the middle of a tune.
Double Whole Note: equal to 8 crotchets or 8 quarter notes.
Doubling: sound like warbles or trills. Consists of two are three gracenotes usually with an accent note on the melody note and the note over the melody note.
Dressing: for the bagpipe bag to insure airtightness. See treacle
Drone, Baritone: uilleann baritone drone resonates at D3, 146.8 Hertz.
Drone, Base: uilleann base drone resonates at D2, 74.4 Hertz.
Drone, Tenor: uilleann tenor drone resonates at D4, 293.6 Hertz.
Drone Chords:
Drone Assembly: the uilleann pipe drone come in two pieces: A reed stock or bed (male piece a slide (female piece}
Drone Switch:
Drum Major: the common role of the pipe band drum major is to lead the band in parade with elegant dress and great showmanship, as well as choreograph marching movements, and transmit visual signals to the marching band. In military organizations the Drum Major has additional responsibilities including Military discipline.
Drum Sticks: both sticks should be identical in composition, weight, size and elasticity. The shape of the sticks can be altered with abrasive tools to suit the individual drummer. Usually made of hickory, maple, ramin, Japanese oak and laminated woods. Base Drum sticks are sometimes made with malacca cane and either cork or lambs wool heads. The tenor drum sticks are similar to the base drum sticks but a bit smaller.
Duple Time: two beats per bar. E
Top of Page-------External Links

Ebony:
Elder: the wood of the elder tree was used when cane was not available for making reeds.
Embellishments: used extensively on the highland bagpipe to produce Accents, Mood, and Virtuosity.
Enharmonic: when two notes have different names but are the same pitch, e.g. E# and F, and C Flat and B.
Epaulette: referred to as wing epaulettes. Decorative in nature. Worn on each shoulder with military pipe band uniforms. Originally used to signify rank, or as padding for carry munitions, or as protection of the shoulder from sword cuts. F
drumming: used to provide weight or depth to the melody. See weight or depth.
Top of Page-------External Links

False Notes: the fingering for the highland and uilleann is precise in terms of open and closed holes. False notes can be introduced when the time of gracenotes is not precise or when the hands on the chanter are changed carelessly. When playing is record in digital format, the false notes show up as blips on the spectrograph or piano roll.
Feadan Dubh: the black chanter; a famous relic of Clan Chattan.
Feather Bonnet: was worn by Highland regiments. It is now usually only worn by drummers, pipers and bandsmen with a military pipe band uniform. The Bonnet is about 12 inches in height, designed to fit squarely on the crown of the head and held in place by a black chin strip. The headdress is decorated with Black feathers and a tail assembly of feathers attached at the top and draping down to the back of the neck. The crown band is usually contains red and white checkerboard pattern.
Feeling Note G: Thomas Peaston, described in 1973 the feelings associated with each note on the chanter. G: the note of the Gathering, as it is the loudest note on the chanter.
Feeling Note A: the piper's note.
Feeling Note B: the note of the challenge, the chiming note.
Feeling Note C#: the most musical note.
Feeling Note D: the note of the Battle; the angry note.
Feeling Note E: the echoing note.
Feeling Note F#: the note of love
Feeling Note High G: the note of sorrow or lament.
Feeling Note High A: the piper's note.
Fifth: see Perfect fifth. A fifth can be perfect, or a diminished fifth (or Tritone) or an augmented fifth. The ratio of the two notes of a perfect fifth are 3:2.
Finger holes: in the chanter may be undercut or bored at a slant to the bore axis, and vary widely among different bagpipes in size and shape.
Fingering: when fingering the highland and uilleann chanters, it is suggested to keep the fingers as straight as possible, while covering the holes with the finger pads between the first and second joints of the hand.
Fermata: a symbol of a semi-circle with a dot at the origin. It means that the note should be held longer than its correct value. The note is usually at the end of a phrase, and helps to add feeling to the phrase at the discretion of the piper.
Ferrule: a band made ivory or imitation ivory, or metal such as brass, copper or silver, mounted around the ends of stocks, drone joints and blowpipes to be both decorative and to reinforce thin-walled areas of these and similar parts.
Flap Valve: a device that keeps air from backing out of a blowpipe when the piper takes a breath. The valve is nothing more than a flap of leather that is mounted so as to block the airway when air pressure becomes greater on the inside than on the outside. Bellows-operated pipes usually have two flap valves, one in the air-inlet (in one of the cheeks) and the other in the connecting pipe between the bellows and the bag.
Flashes: a decorative garter worn with the white or plaid hose. The color of the flash is coordinated. the hose folds down over the flash so as to hide the flash. Attached to the garter are small ribbons that hang perpendicular to the ground and adorn the hose.
Flat: lower in pitch. As an example: B4 Flat (466.16 Hertz) denotes a note one semitone lower than the natural note B4 (493.88 Hertz). Since there are multiple reeds in a bagpipe, the expression sharp or flat usually means that a chanter or drone or regulator may be out of tune with the other reeds. It is also important to note that the highland pipe is a transposing instrument and the notes sound about a semitone higher than the written music. Competitive pipers and pipebands tend to favor chanters with a higher or sharper pitch.
Flea Hole: a very small chanter finger hole most commonly found on Eastern European and Balkan pipes that, when uncovered, raises the pitch being played by the other fingers by approximately a semitone, allowing chromatic possibilities. It is disinct from a "vent hole", which raises the chanter's pitch by an octave (on conical-bored chanters).
Fontennelle: a rigid tubular cover that fits over the lowest key on some bagpipe chanters (notably Italian Zampognas), covering all of the keys except the very end of the actuating lever. Usually made of the same material as the chanter or the chanter's trim work.
Form: the arrangement of sections of the tune. The analysis of the melody in terms of its construction of its phrases or sections. The analysis generally takes th form of letters A B C meant to identify motifs, or phrases or sections and so forth. Piobaireachd lends itself to analysis in this manner. Also see Binary Form and Ternary Form.
Foursome reel: a Scottish Country Dance. The piper should be aware that the reel time part is the tune "Reel of Tulloch" which is played in common Time (2/4) at 112 beats per minute. The Reel follows a Foursome Reel Strathspey played at 132 beats per minute.
Four Stroke Ruff
Free Hand Chords: when the lower right hand is free and can be removed from the uilleann chanter, it can be used to play chords on the regulators. Specifically, there are three sets of chords: number 1: G3 D4 B3 for Chord G for notes G4, B4 and D4; number 2: B3 D4 G4 for use with B4 or G4; number 3: A3 D4 F#4 for use with D4 and A5 on the chanter. See Scientific Pitch Notation.
F.S.A.
Fugue: a complex form of contrapuntal music whereby contrapuntal melodies follow each other using a variety of pitches and tempo. Of limited use with the bagpipes, but very effective with some folk tunes or creative compositions.
Full Set: the uilleann pipes are difficult to play, and there are many pipers who have not played the full set with reeds activated because of the wind and pressure requirements as well as physical dexterity. In addition there is a Practice Set for beginners and a Half Set for more experienced players. G
Top of Page-------External Links

Gaita, also known as Galician gaita. Plays a normal major scale with a different set of holes.
GDE Gracenotes: a frequently used gracenote rhythm used in reels and jigs and triplets. See Illustration under Embellishments.
Grace note: highland piping grace notes are written with a value of a 1/32nd note, or a demi-semi quaver. They are executed by a smart stroke of the finger on the melody (or theme or main or plain) note. Single gracenotes give accent or emphasis to the note, adding strength and pronunciation. It can also separate two or more notes of the same pitch. But they are not really an ornament or an embellishment in the musical sense of a grace note. They are an essential part of the technique of playing the Great Highland Bagpipe]] The time value of 1/32nd note is taken off the melody or theme note.
Grade I-V: highland pipe bands are graded by the local pipe band associations in various sections from Grade V to Grade I for the top bands. The usual test in the various contests is the playing of a set consisting of a March, Strathspey and Reel.
Great Staff: contains eleven horizontal lines and 10 intermediate spaces. The central line is not shown, but is replaced by a Leger line to accommodate Middle C4. Highland pipe music uses a Short Staff (five lines and four intermediate spaces) with a leger line above the stave to accommodate Hi A. The Great Staff includes the treble, alto and bass clef and accommodates the note range F2 (87.3 Hertz) just below the stave to G5 (784 Hertz) just above the stave. The uilleann pipe also uses only the Short Staff but has a larger note range than the highland pipe. The uilleann pipe ranges from D3 (146.8 Hertz) just below the staff to E5 Flat (1318.5 Hertz) on the third Leger line above the stave.
Grip: also called Leumluath in Gaelic. A gracenote movement. See illustration.
Ground: see Piobaireachd Structure
Goat: Eastern European and Mediterranean pipe bags are usually made of goatskin. Frequently the pipes will be adorned with elaborate carved goat heads serving as chanter stocks.
Gold Clasp:
Gold Medal:
Good-going-pipes: a satisfying experience when one is enveloped with the smooth harmonious sound of the chanter and drones. The chanter reed vibrates through the finger holes and onto the fingers. The second, third and fourth harmonics mesh in a saw-like buzz. The quintessential experience has been reported as playing "good-sounding-pipes" in a high quality anechoic chamber such as can be found in Bell Labs, NJ.
Gooseneck: some bagpipe bags are made with a long neck or "gooseneck" to house the chanter stock. It is helpful for pipers with long arms.
Guills: uilleann pipe drone reeds H
Top of Page-------External Links

Hackle: The hackle is a feather plume (usually made of horsehair) that is attached to the headdress or feather bonnet worn by members of a pipe band usually wearing a military uniform. The color would signify the pipe band colors.
Half Set: includes the chanter and drones for the Uilleann Pipes. See Full Set.
Half Sized Pipes: from about 1900, half-sized pipes were used in boys' bands. Half-sized pipes were similar but somewhat more shill compared to the great highland pipe. Not to be confused with the Reel Pipes.
Hand Changing: required in highland piping. the bottom hand is closed when the top hand is playing and vice versa. It is critical when changing hands from high or low notes and vice versa, that false notes not be introduced accidentally.
Hand Chords: see Free Hand Chords.
Harmony: two are more notes played simultaneously (and vertically) form a chord. The fundamental note of the chord is called the Root. A fundamental note or root with a third and a fifth is called a triad or common chord. If the root is raised by an octave, it is said to be the First Inversion. If the third is then raised an octave, it is called the Second Inversion. Chords can be inverted upward or downward by moving the affected note an octave in either direction.
Harmonics of Bagpipe: same as overtone or partial.
Heads: a component of the Drum. The ideal skin is one that takes little tension to bring the drum to perfect tone. Nor should it be affected by temperature and lose tension.
Heel: the heel of the hand is where the wrist begins and is used to strike the keys on the uilleann regulators. Some uilleann pipers use the side of their hands on the base regulator and the heel on the baritone and tenor regulators.
hemidemisemiquaver: a 1/64th note. Rarely seen in piping; sometimes used in drumming.
Hemiola: is a cross rhythm, combining of simple triple time and compound duple time.
Hemp, resigned:
Hereditary Piper:
Hertz: an international standard of measurement for the frequency of a vibrating entity. An equal temperament tuned piano playing at concert A produces a fundamental vibration of 440 cycles per second, or 440 Hertz. Of course, the sounded note is producing overtones as well that vibrate at 880 hertz and higher frequencies that are a multiple of 440.
Hexatonic Scale: or hexatonic mode. Certain pipe tunes use six notes rather than five notes in a pentatonic scale.
Hi A: is written on a very short ledger line above the staff or stave. The frequency for the highland pipes is about 950 hertz whereas the frequency on the uilleann pipes is 880 hertz. On the uilleann pipes, the fingering for Low A and Hi A are the same, so the left arm must be squeezed with extra pressure to obtain the high note. Inexperienced pipers will find it difficult to reach Hi A unless a lower note is played preceding it, such as Hi F or Hi G.
High Hand: the left hand if the highland piper is right handed. In many woodwind instruments the fingers are successively removed from the instrument as higher notes are played. In highland piping, the Low Hand is kept on the notes A, B and C while playing E, F, and G. The High Hand is kept on the notes Hi A, G, F, and E when playing lower notes. When playing Hi A, the thumb and right pinky holes are uncovered. On The uilleann chanter the fingers are successively removed, like the penny whistle, but there exists alternate fingering and cross fingering where only one, two or three holes are left uncovered. It depends on the type of uilleann chanter.
Highland Bagpipes: Two of the principal characteristics of the highland bagpipe are: (i) continuity of sound (no staccato is possible) which precludes any break between notes; (ii) the absence of any means of varying the volume of a note so that it sounds loudly or softly. As a result expression in highland pipe music is dependent wholly on the varying length of the notes, called agogic accent, and to a lesser extent on embellishment by means of grace notes. Two other features have come into play: (i) use of vibrato; (ii) the accompaniment of the ensemble of drums.
Highland Drums: are an essential part of competitive pipe bands and parade pipe bands. Drums cover a sound range of about two octaves. They range from A3, an octave below Low A4, to A5, and octave higher than concert A4. Drums are not tuned as precisely as highland pipes. See Base, Tenor, Snare Drum.
Homophonic: a melody accompanied by one or or harmonizing voices. A pipe band playing seconds is playing homophonically.
Horn: of various kinds is used in construction of many bagpipes, as bells and ferrules. The most common is cow horn but sheep and goat horns are also used.
Hornpipe: historically a favorite exhibition tune or competition tune, but gradually replaced by more lively jigs and reels. The time signature is 4/4 and sometimes shown a C. The rhythm is long - short - long - short, or emphasis - cut - emphasis - cut. Even though there are 4 quarter notes per measure, it is customary to sound out two beats per measure. Played at 104 - 110 beats per minute; beat equals a quarter note. Hornpipes frequently employ triplets, a common form of musical ornamentation.
Hornpipe (Instrument): an ancient mouth-blown reed instrument, cylindrical bore, that is somehow related to certain types of bagpipes. Widely spread from Wales to India and from Russia to Sicily. Sometimes used with a bag. I
Top of Page-------External Links

Imitation Ivory:
Intensity: is the degree of loudness or softness of the musical sound. The volume of the Highland Bagpipe cannot be varied whereas the intensity of drum accompaniment can vary.
Interval: most cultures agree on the octave with a ratio of 2:1. The next challenge is to create a scale by dividing the octave, low doh to high doh into intervals in such a manner that the intervals are simple fractions. The fraction is obtained by dividing the frequencies of the two notes in question. The selection of a scale is a very controversial as well as cultural issue. So an interval is a measure of the difference in pitch between two notes. It may be calculated by counting the number of degrees or steps between the notes. For example, the interval of a Fifth contains 5 degrees. A melodic interval occurs when two notes which are at least one interval apart are place in succession. A harmonic interval occurs when two notes at least one interval apart are played at the same time. A compound interval occurs when the number of degrees exceeds eight. The scale of the Great Highland Bagpipe is a special case and has generated much heated discussion among pipers and other musicians.
Interval, Great Highland Bagpipe: the chanter has a range of G, A, B, C#, D^, E, F#, G^ and High A. Where the D^ and G^ are about a quarter tone sharp. The intervals are expressed as follows: G (9/8 or 204 cents or a major semitone), A (9/8 or 204 cents), B (10/9 or 182 cents or a minor semitone), C# (27/25 or 133 cents or a limma), D^ (10/9 or 182 cents), E (10/9 or 182 cents), F# (27/25 or 133 cents) G^ (10/9 or 182 cents). A limma is a diatonic semitone (16/15 or 111.7 cents) augmented by a comma (16/15 or 111.7 cents. 100 cents is an equal tempered semitone.